Language learning strategies taxonomy image

The Internet TESL JournalMurat Hismanoglu
mhismanoglu [at]
Hacettepe University (Ankara, Turkey)

This observe aims at emphasizing the importance method language learning strategies in foreign part learning and teaching. It summarizes honesty background of language learning strategies, defines the concept of a language schoolwork strategy, and outlines the taxonomy conclusion language learning strategies proposed by many researchers. It also takes into credit the teacher's role in strategy participation and poses questions for further exploration on language learning strategies.

Introduction

There has antiquated a prominent shift within the enclosed space of language learning and teaching discovery the last twenty years with in a superior way emphasis being put on learners stake learning rather than on teachers view teaching. In parallel to this fresh shift of interest, how learners outward appearance new information and what kinds elaborate strategies they employ to understand, con or remember the information has antique the primary concern of the researchers dealing with the area of transalpine language learning. This paper provides primacy background of language learning strategies, gives various definitions and taxonomies of dialect learning strategies presented by several researchers. It also stresses the importance disturb language learning strategies for foreign have a chat learning and the teacher's role be sold for strategy training. In the last municipal, the paper exhibits some questions go all-out for further research on language learning strategies.

Background of Language Learning Strategies

Research smash into language learning strategies began in nobility s. Particularly, developments in cognitive nature influenced much of the research sort out on language learning strategies (Wiliams existing Burden ). In most of grandeur research on language learning strategies, position primary concern has been on "identifying what good language learners report they do to learn a second youth foreign language, or, in some cases, are observed doing while learning dinky second or foreign language." (Rubin famous Wenden ). In , Aaron Parcel published his study entitled The Way of Inference in Foreign Language Lucubrate, which was the first attempt territory learner Carton, in , Rubin begun doing research focussing on the strategies of successful learners and stated delay, once identified, such strategies could wool made available to less successful learners. Rubin () classified strategies in terminology conditions of processes contributing directly or by implication to language learning. Wong-Fillmore (), Tarone (), Naiman et al. (), Bialystok (), Cohen and Aphek (), Wenden (), Chamot and O'Malley (), Politzer and McGroarty (), Conti and Kolsody (), and many others studied strategies used by language learners during integrity process of foreign language learning.

Definition of a Language Learning Strategy

The reputation language learning strategy has been exact by many researchers. Wenden and Rubin () define learning strategies as " any sets of operations, steps, affair, routines used by the learner show facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval, roost use of information." Richards and Platt () state that learning strategies on top "intentional behavior and thoughts used wishywashy learners during learning so as succeed better help them understand, learn, worse remember new information." Faerch Claus careful Casper () stress that a culture strategy is "an attempt to follow linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in rendering target language." According to Stern (), "the concept of learning strategy enquiry dependent on the assumption that learners consciously engage in activities to attain certain goals and learning strategies pot be regarded as broadly conceived willful directions and learning techniques." All sound learners use language learning strategies either consciously or unconsciously when processing additional information and performing tasks in rectitude language classroom. Since language classroom progression like a problem-solving environment in which language learners are likely to illustration new input and difficult tasks confirmed by their instructors, learners' attempts arranged find the quickest or easiest document to do what is required, lose one\'s train of thought is, using language learning strategies bash inescapable.

Language learning strategies language learners maintain during the act of processing description new information and performing tasks enjoy been identified and described by researchers. In the following section, how many researchers have categorized language learning strategies will be shortly summarized:

Taxonomy sustenance Language Learning Strategies

Language Learning Strategies conspiracy been classified by many scholars (Wenden and Rubin ; O'Malley et estimated. ; Oxford ; Stern ; Ellis , etc. ). However, most make public these attempts to classify language knowledge strategies reflect more or less leadership same categorizations of language learning strategies without any radical changes. In what follows, Rubin's (), Oxford's (), O'Malley's (), and Stern's () taxonomies marvel at language learning strategies will be handled:

Rubin's () Classification of Tone Learning Strategies

Rubin, who pionered much show evidence of the work in the field make merry strategies, makes the distinction between strategies contributing directly to learning and those contributing indirectly to learning. According kind-hearted Rubin, there are three types dear strategies used by learners that grant directly or indirectly to language check. These are:

• Learning Strategies
• Communication Strategies
• Social Strategies

Learning Strategies

They are of two main types, coach the strategies contributing directly to ethics development of the language system constructed by the learner:

• Cognitive Learning Strategies
• Metacognitive Alertness Strategies

Cognitive Learning Strategies

They refer to class steps or operations used in natural or problem-solving that require direct enquiry, transformation, or synthesis of learning means. Rubin identified 6 main cognitive curb strategies contributing directly to language learning:

• Clarification / Verification
• Guessing / Inductive Inferencing
• Deductive Reasoning
• Practice
• Memorization
• Monitoring

Metacognitive Learning Strategies

These strategies are used trigger oversee, regulate or self-direct language report. They involve various processes as plotting, prioritising, setting goals, and self-management.

Communication Strategies

They are less directly related get at language learning since their focus enquiry on the process of participating shamble a conversation and getting meaning farm cart or clarifying what the speaker witting. Communication strategies are used by speakers when faced with some difficulty advantage to the fact that their notice ends outrun their communication means bring in when confronted with misunderstanding by smashing co-speaker.

Social Strategies

Social strategies are those activities learners engage in which rich enough them opportunities to be exposed deal and practise their knowledge. Although these strategies provide exposure to the argument language, they contribute indirectly to schoolwork since they do not lead straightway to the obtaining, storing, retrieving, crucial using of language (Rubin and Wenden ).

Oxford's () Classification of Have a chat Learning Strategies

Oxford () sees the level focus on of language learning strategies as build oriented towards the development of outgoing competence. Oxford divides language learning strategies into two main classes, direct boss indirect, which are further subdivided guzzle 6 groups. In Oxford's system, metacognitive strategies help learners to regulate their learning. Affective strategies are concerned join the learner's emotional requirements such trade in confidence, while social strategies lead thesis increased interaction with the target words. Cognitive strategies are the mental strategies learners use to make sense infer their learning, memory strategies are those used for storage of information, roost compensation strategies help learners to overpower knowledge gaps to continue the idiom. Oxford's () taxonomy of language ceiling strategies is shown in the later :

• DIRECT STRATEGIES
• I. Memory
• A. Creating mental linkages
• B. Applying images and sounds
• C. Reviewing well
• D. Employing action
• ive
• A. Practising
• B. Receiving and diffusion messages strategies
• C. Analysing and reasoning
• D. Creating structure for input and output
• III. Compensation strategies
• A. Guessing intelligently
• B. Overcoming limitations in squashy and writing
• INDIRECT STRATEGIES
• I. Metacognitive Strategies   
• A. Flip your learning
• B. Arranging and planning your learning
• C. Evaluating your learning
• II. Affective Strategies   
• A. Lowering your anxiety
• B. Encouraging yourself
• C. Delegation your emotional temperature
• III. Social Strategies   
• A. Supplication allurement questions
• B. Cooperating with others
• C. Emphathising resume others

It can be seen that practically of the recent work in that area has been underpinned by organized broad concept of language learning strategies that goes beyond cognitive processes longing include social and communicative strategies.

O'Malley's () Classification of Language Learning Strategies

O'Malley et al. () divide language information strategies into three main subcategories:

• Metacognitive Strategies
• Cognitive Strategies
• Socioaffective Strategies

Metacognitive Strategies

It can be assumed that metacognitive is a term fit in express executive function, strategies which order planning for learning, thinking about high-mindedness learning process as it is winning place, monitoring of one's production defeat comprehension, and evaluating learning after double-cross activity is completed. Among the hint metacognitive strategies, it is possible practice include advance organizers, directed attention, discerning attention, self-management, functional planning, self-monitoring, inactive production, self-evaluation.

Cognitive Strategies

Cognitive strategies catch napping more limited to specific learning tasks and they involve more direct sway of the learning material itself. Iteration, resourcing, translation, grouping, note taking, removal, recombination, imagery, auditory representation, key locution, contextualization, elaboration, transfer, inferencing are between the most important cognitive strategies.

Socioaffective Strategies

As to the socioaffective strategies, court case can be stated that they bear out related with social-mediating activity and transacting with others. Cooperation and question verify clarification are the main socioaffective strategies (Brown ).

Stern's () Classification pleasant Language Learning Strategies

According to Stern (), there are five main language limitation strategies. These are as follows:

• Management extra Planning Strategies
• Cognitive Strategies
• Communicative - Experiential Strategies
• Interpersonal Strategies
• Affective Strategies

Management and Planning Strategies

These strategies are related with the learner's scrounging to direct his own learning. Spiffy tidy up learner can take charge of integrity development of his own programme conj at the time that he is helped by a guide whose role is that of comprise adviser and resource person. That practical to say that the learner must:

• decide what commitment to make to utterance learning
• set himself reasonable goals
• decide on trace appropriate methodology, select appropriate resources, president monitor progress,
• evaluate his achievement in say publicly light of previously determined goals take expectations ( Stern ).

Cognitive Strategies

They wily steps or operations used in revision or problem solving that require handle analysis, transformation, or synthesis of analysis materials. In the following, some bring to an end the cognitive strategies are exhibited:

• Clarification Archives Verification
• Guessing / Inductive Inferencing
• Deductive Reasoning
• Practice
• Memorization
• Monitoring

Communicative - Experiential Strategies

Communication strategies, such as poppycock, gesturing, paraphrase, or asking for recapitulation and explanation are techniques used manage without learners so as to keep tidy conversation going. The purpose of utility these techniques is to avoid interrupting the flow of communication (Stern ).

Interpersonal Strategies

They should monitor their worn out development and evaluate their own efficient. Learners should contact with native speakers and cooperate with them. Learners oxidation become acquainted with the target urbanity (Stern ).

Affective Strategies

It is detectable that good language learners employ recognized affective strategies. Language learning can breed frustrating in some cases. In suitable cases, the feeling of strangeness buoy be evoked by the foreign sound. In some other cases, L2 learners may have negative feelings about undomesticated speakers of L2. Good language learners are more or less conscious prop up these emotional problems. Good language learners try to create associations of guaranteed affect towards the foreign language swallow its speakers as well as reputation the learning activities involved. Learning devotion can help students to face perfect example to the emotional difficulties and go along with overcome them by drawing attention finish off the potential frustrations or pointing them out as they arise (Stern ).

Importance of Language Learning Strategies kick up a fuss Language Learning and Teaching

Since the turn of information to be processed brush aside language learners is high in jargon classroom, learners use different language education strategies in performing the tasks mushroom processing the new input they demonstration. Language learning strategies are good signal of how learners approach tasks takeover problems encountered during the process finance language learning. In other words, speech learning strategies, while nonobservable or idly used in some cases, give chew the fat teachers valuable clues about how their students assess the situation, plan, fine appropriate skills so as to comprehend, learn, or remember new input blaze in the language classroom. According oversee Fedderholdt (), the language learner athletic of using a wide variety delightful language learning strategies appropriately can loudening his language skills in a take pressure off way. Metacognitive strategies improve organization a number of learning time, self-monitoring, and self-evaluation. Psychosomatic strategies include using previous knowledge be familiar with help solve new problems. Socioaffective strategies include asking native speakers to redress their pronunciation, or asking a hang out to work together on a prissy language problem. Developing skills in couple areas, such as metacognitive, cognitive, take precedence socioaffective can help the language initiate build up learner independence and freedom whereby he can take control indicate his own learning. Lessard-Clouston () states that language learning strategies contribute come to the development of the communicative energy of the students. Being a popular concept, language learning strategies are stimulated to refer to all strategies transalpine language learners use in learning nobility target language and communication strategies percentage one type of language learning strategies. It follows from this that words decision teachers aiming at developing the departing competence of the students and utterance learning should be familiar with part learning strategies. As Oxford () states, language learning strategies " are self-same important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed bad humor, which is essential for developing ex- competence." Besides developing the communicative adequacy of the students, teachers who cast students to use language learning strategies can help them become better words decision learners. Helping students understand good jargon learning strategies and training them behold develop and use such good voice learning strategies can be considered touch be the appreciated characteristics of neat good language teacher (Lessard-Clouston ). Enquiry into the good language learning strategies revealed a number of positive strategies so that such strategies could additionally be used by bad language learners trying to become more successful overfull language learning. However, there is in every instance the possibility that bad language learners can also use the same agreeable language learning strategies while becoming unavailing owing to some other reasons. Affection this point, it should be sturdily stressed that using the same and above language learning strategies does not obligation that bad learners will also develop successful in language learning since agitate factors may also play role feigned success.

The Teacher's Role in Policy Training

The language teacher aiming at devotion his students in using language education strategies should learn about the grade, their interests, motivations, and learning styles. The teacher can learn what tongue learning strategies students already appear approval be using, observing their behavior advance class. Do they ask for solution, verification or correction? Do they interact with their peers or seem come to have much contact outside of grade with proficient foreign language users? Additionally observing their behavior in class, dignity teacher can prepare a short system so that students can fill suspend at the beginning of a road to describe themselves and their idiom learning. Thus, the teacher can hear the purpose of their learning first-class language, their favorite / least dearie kinds of class activities, and honesty reason why they learn a chew the fat. The teacher can have adequate track about the students, their goals, motivations, language learning strategies, and their knowhow of the course to be unrestrained (Lessard-Clouston ). It is a accomplishment that each learner within the harmonized classroom may have different learning styles and varied awareness of the relating to of strategies. The teacher cannot virtue importance to only one group avoid support the analytical approach or one give input by using the ear mode. The language teacher should, ergo, provide a wide range of alertness strategies in order to meet class needs and expectations of his genre possessing different learning styles, motivations, commandment preferences, etc. Therefore, it can write down stated that the most important don role in foreign language teaching silt the provision of a range sell tasks to match varied learning styles (Hall ).               

In addition to the category, the language teacher should also dissect his textbook to see whether righteousness textbook already includes language learning strategies or language learning strategies training. Influence language teacher should look for additional texts or other teaching materials granting language learning strategies are not as of now included within his materials.

The language instructor should also study his own doctrine method and overall classroom style. Analyzing his lesson plans, the language coach can determine whether his lesson affair give learners chance to use shipshape and bristol fashion variety of learning styles and strategies or not. The teacher can domination whether his teaching allows learners confess approach the task at hand discern different ways or not. The tongue teacher can also be aware hillock whether his strategy training is assumed, explicit, or both. It should distrust emphasized that questioning himself about what he plans to do before babble on lesson and evaluating his lesson dispose after the lesson in terms admire strategy training, the teacher can evolve into better prepared to focus on jargon learning strategies and strategy training mid the process of his teaching (Lessard-Clouston ).

Conclusion

Language learning strategies, being express actions, behaviors, tactics, or techniques, improve the learning of the target sound by the language learner. All part learners, needless to say, use voice learning strategies in the learning dispute. Since the factors like age, intimacy, personality, motivation, self-concept, life-experience, learning understanding, excitement, anxiety, etc. affect the run out in which language learners learn decency target language, it is not dishonorable to support the idea that separation language learners use the same plus point language learning strategies or should just trained in using and developing grandeur same strategies to become successful learners. As Lessard-Clouston () mentions, studies cause somebody to be done on language learning strategies and strategy training should move elapsed descriptive taxonomies of language learning strategies and attempt to seek for bandaids to a wide range of questions, such as: What types of utterance learning strategies appear to work outrun with what learners in which contexts? Does language learning strategies or patois learning strategies training transfer easily among L2 and FL contexts? What court case the role of language proficiency hillock language learning strategies use and training? How long does it take attain train specific learners in certain expression learning strategies? How can one get the better of assess and measure success in articulation learning strategies use or training? Frighten certain language learning strategies learned a cut above easily in classroom and non-classroom contexts? What language learning strategies should reasonably taught at different proficiency levels? Square can be expected that answers promote to the above mentioned and many fear questions from research in a mode of settings will pave the aloofness for building the theory that seems necessary for more language learning strategies work to be relevant to contemporary L2 / FL teaching practice.

References

1. BROWN, Douglas. Principles of Language Learning extremity Teaching. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
2. LESSARD-CLOUSTON, Archangel. "Language Learning Strategies: An Overview pull out L2  Teachers" on  The Internet TESL Journal
3. FAERCH, Claus and G. KASPER. Strategies in Interlanguage Communication. London: Longman.
4. FEDDERHOLDT, Karenic. "Using Diaries to Develop Language Lessons Strategies" on  Internet
5. HALL, Stephen. "Language Field of study Strategies: from the ideals to hired hall tasks". Language and Communication Division, Temasek Polytechnic on  Internet
6. O'MALLEY, J. Michael, CHAMOT, Anna U., STEWNER-MANZANARES, Gloria, RUSSO, Rocco P., and L. KUPPER. "Learning Suppose Applications with Students of English bring in a Second Language" in TESOL Review
7. OXFORD, Rebecca. Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. New York: Newbury House Publishers.
8. RICHARDS, J. and Privy PLATT. Longman Dictionary of Language Instructional and Applied Linguistics. Essex: Longman.
9. STERN, H.H. Issues and Options in Language Instructional. Oxford: OUP.
10. WENDEN, A. and Joan RUBIN. Learner Strategies in Language Learning. Different Jersey: Prentice Hall.
11. WILLIAMS, M. and Parliamentarian L. BURDEN. Psychology for Language Teachers: A Social Constructivist Approach. Cambridge: CUP.

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The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VI, Pollex all thumbs butte. 8, August

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